In November 2009, Homeland Security Secretary Janet Napolitano laid out President Barack Obama’s immigration agenda at the Center for American Progress, a liberal Washington think tank with close ties to the White House. After eight years of George W. Bush, voters seemed to expect change. But on immigration, Napolitano pledged to achieve reform through more of the same.

Comprehensive reform comprised a “three-legged stool,” she said, echoing centrist conventional wisdom: legal status for undocumented immigrants, greater opportunities for authorized immigration, and an enforcement crackdown. As usual, the crackdown would come first.

“It’s an affront to every law-abiding citizen and every employer who plays by the rules,” said Napolitano, referring to the presence of an estimated 11.1 million unauthorized immigrants. “We are both a nation of immigrants and a nation of laws.”